Encouraged to Watch the Video Encourage Them to Watch the Video Again

• Journal List
• CBE Life Sci Educ
• 5.fifteen(4); Winter 2016
• PMC5132380

CBE Life Sci Educ. 2016 Winter; xv(4): es6.

Constructive Educational Videos: Principles and Guidelines for Maximizing Student Learning from Video Content

Kathryn East. Perez, Monitoring Editor

Received 2016 Mar 15; Revised 2016 May 21; Accepted 2016 May 23.

Abstract

Educational videos have become an important part of higher education, providing an important content-delivery tool in many flipped, composite, and online classes. Effective apply of video every bit an educational tool is enhanced when instructors consider iii elements: how to manage cognitive load of the video; how to maximize student appointment with the video; and how to promote agile learning from the video. This essay reviews literature relevant to each of these principles and suggests practical means instructors can use these principles when using video as an educational tool.

Video has become an important part of higher education. Information technology is integrated as role of traditional courses, serves as a cornerstone of many blended courses, and is often the main information-delivery mechanism in online courses. Several meta-analyses take shown that technology can raise learning (due east.chiliad., Means et al., 2010 ; Schmid et al., 2014 ), and multiple studies have shown that video, specifically, can be a highly constructive educational tool (e.g., Allen and Smith, 2012 ; Kay, 2012 ; Lloyd and Robertson, 2012 ; Rackaway, 2012 ; Hsin and Cigas, 2013 ; Stockwell et al., 2015 ). Video may take particular value for student preparation in biology classes, in part because students may detect it more than engaging (Stockwell et al., 2015 ) and because it can be well suited to illuminating the abstract or difficult-to-visualize phenomena that are the focus of so many biology classes (e.g., Dash et al., 2016 ; encounter Video Views and Reviews features in CBE—Life Sciences Education for other examples). The medium is not inherently effective, yet; Guo et al. (2014) accept shown that students frequently disregard large segments of educational videos, while MacHardy and Pardos (2015) demonstrate that some videos contribute little to student functioning. What, so, are the principles that allow instructors to cull or develop videos that are constructive in moving students toward the desired learning outcomes? Consideration of three elements for video design and implementation can help instructors maximize video's utility in the biology classroom:

• Cognitive load

• Student engagement

• Active learning

Together, these elements provide a solid base for the development and use of video every bit an effective educational tool.

Cognitive LOAD

One of the primary considerations when constructing educational materials, including video, is cognitive load. Cognitive load theory, initially articulated by Sweller (1988 , 1989 , 1994 ), suggests that retentiveness has several components. Sensory memory is transient, collecting information from the environment. Information from sensory memory may be selected for temporary storage and processing in working memory, which has very express capacity. This processing is a prerequisite for encoding into long-term memory, which has virtually unlimited capacity. Because working memory is very express, the learner must exist selective about what information from sensory memory to pay attention to during the learning procedure, an observation that has important implications for creating educational materials.

Based on this model of retention, cognitive load theory suggests that any learning experience has three components. The commencement of these is intrinsic load, which is inherent to the bailiwick under study and is determined in function past the degrees of connectivity within the field of study. The common example given to illustrate a subject with low intrinsic load is a word pair (eastward.g., bluish = azul); grammar, on the other hand, is a subject with a loftier intrinsic load due to its many levels of connectivity and conditional relationships. In an instance from biology, learning the names of the stages of mitosis would have lower intrinsic load than understanding the process of cell cycle command. The second component of whatever learning experience is germane load, which is the level of cognitive activeness necessary to reach the desired learning outcome—for instance, to make the comparisons, do the analysis, and elucidate the steps necessary to primary the lesson. The ultimate goal of these activities is for the learner to incorporate the subject under study into a schema of richly continued ideas. The 3rd component of a learning experience is extraneous load, which is cognitive effort that does not aid the learner toward the desired learning result. It is often characterized as load that arises from a poorly designed lesson (east.g., confusing instructions, extra information) but may too be load that arises due to stereotype threat or imposter syndrome. These concepts are more fully articulated and to some extent critiqued in an excellent review past deJong (2010) .

These definitions have implications for blueprint of educational materials and experiences. Specifically, instructors should seek to minimize inapplicable cerebral load and should consider the intrinsic cognitive load of the discipline when constructing learning experiences, carefully structuring them when the material has high intrinsic load. Because working memory has a limited chapters, and information must be processed past working memory to exist encoded in long-term memory, it is important to prompt working memory to accept, process, and transport to long-term retentiveness just the most crucial information (Ibrahim et al., 2012 ).

The cognitive theory of multimedia learning builds on the cognitive load theory, noting that working memory has two channels for information acquisition and processing: a visual/pictorial channel and an auditory/verbal-processing channel (Mayer, 2001 ; Mayer and Moreno, 2003 ). Although each channel has limited capacity, the use of the 2 channels can facilitate the integration of new information into existing cognitive structures. Using both channels maximizes working memory'due south capacity—simply either channel can be overwhelmed by loftier cognitive load. Thus, design strategies that manage the cognitive load for both channels in multimedia learning materials promise to enhance learning.

These theories give ascension to several recommendations about educational videos (see Table one). Based on the premise that effective learning experiences minimize inapplicable cognitive load, optimize germane cognitive load, and manage intrinsic cognitive lead, iv effective practices emerge.

Table 1.

Practices to maximize pupil learning from educational videos

Element to consider	Recommendation	Rationale	Examples
Cerebral load	Employ signaling to highlight of import data.	Can reduce extraneous load.	Central words on screen highlighting important elements
		Can enhance germane load.	Changes in color or dissimilarity to emphasize organisation of information
			Changes in colour or contrast to emphasize relationships inside information
			Brief out-of-video text explaining purpose and context for video (e.one thousand., learning objective for video)
	Utilize segmenting to chunk information.	Manages intrinsic load.	Short videos (6 minutes or less)
		Tin can enhance germane load.	Chapters or click-forward questions within videos
	Employ weeding to eliminate extraneous information.	Reduces extraneous load.	Eliminating music
			Eliminating circuitous backgrounds
	Match modality past using auditory and visual channels to convey complementary information.	Can enhance germane load.	Khan University–manner tutorial videos that illustrate and explicate phenomena
			Narrated animations
Student engagement	Keep each video brief.	Increases percentage of each video that students lookout man; may increase total watch fourth dimension.	Multiple videos for a lesson, each ≤ 6 minutes
		May subtract listen wandering.
	Use conversational linguistic communication.	Creates a sense of social partnership between student and instructor, prompting the pupil to endeavour harder to make sense of the lesson.	Placing the pupil in the lesson past use of "your" rather than "the" during explanations
			Utilize of "I" to indicate the narrator's perspective
	Speak relatively quickly and with enthusiasm.	Increases percentage of each video that students watch.	Speaking rates in the 185–254 words per minute range
		May increase sense of social partnership betwixt student and teacher.	Expressions of instructor excitement, such as "I dear the next part; the style the feed-forward machinery works is so elegant," or "Consider how the cell solves this tricky problem of needing to regulate 3 genes in sequence; it'due south actually absurd."
	Create and/or package videos to emphasize relevance to the class in which they are used.	Increases percentage of each video that students watch.	Videos created for the class in which they are going to be used, with instructor narration explaining links to preceding fabric
		May increase germane cognitive load past helping students recognize connections.	Explanatory text to situate video in course
Active learning	Consider these strategies for promoting active learning:
	Packaging video with interactive questions.	May increment germane cerebral load, improve memory via the testing issue, and ameliorate student self-assessment.	Integrate questions into videos with HapYak or Zaption, as described by Obodo and Baskauf (2015)
			Follow short videos with interactive questions within an LMS, as done by Keithly and colleagues (2015) , or inside Google Forms, every bit washed by Caudel and colleagues (2015)
	Use interactive features that give students control.	Increases student ownership and may increase germane cerebral load.	Create "capacity" within a video using HapYak or YouTube Comment
	Apply guiding questions.	May increase germane cognitive load, reduce extraneous cognitive load, and meliorate pupil self-cess.	Senchina (2011) provides guiding questions for videos designed to introduce physiology students to professional ethics related to experimenter–subject interactions, such as the following: "Discover the subject's behavior and responsiveness during the dehydration catamenia. What changes equally the subject field becomes dehydrated? What problems does he have? Observe the experimenters' behavior and responsiveness as dehydration progresses. What do they exercise differently? Why?"
	Brand video part of a larger homework assignment.	May increase pupil motivation, germane cognitive load, and student cocky-assessment.	Package videos with a serial of questions or problems that ask students to apply the concepts from the videos. iBiology Education videos (e.k., What Can You Learn with a Calorie-free Microscope?) provide one example (iBiology, 2016 )

Signaling, which is also known as cueing (deKoning et al., 2009 ), is the use of on-screen text or symbols to highlight of import information. For example, signaling may be provided by the advent of two or 3 key words (Mayer and Johnson, 2008 ; Ibrahim et al., 2012 ), a change in color or contrast (deKoning et al., 2009 ), or a symbol that draws attention to a region of a screen (due east.grand., an arrow; deKoning et al., 2009 ). By highlighting the key information, signaling helps directly learner attention, thus targeting particular elements of the video for processing in the working retentiveness. This tin reduce inapplicable load past helping novice learners with the chore of determining which elements within a complex tool are important, and information technology can also increase germane load by emphasizing the system of and connections within the information. Mayer and Moreno (2003) and deKoning et al. (2009) have shown that this arroyo improves students' power to retain and transfer new cognition from animations, and Ibrahim et al. (2012) have shown that these effects extend to video.

The benefits of signaling are complemented by segmenting, or the chunking of data in a video lesson. Segmenting allows learners to appoint with small pieces of new information and gives them control over the flow of new information. As such, it manages intrinsic load and can also increase germane load past emphasizing the construction of the information. Segmenting can be accomplished both by making shorter videos and past including "click forward" pauses within a video, such equally using YouTube Annotate or HapYak to provide students with a question and prompting them to click forward afterward completion. Both types of segmenting have been shown to be important for educatee engagement with videos (Zhang et al., 2006 ; Guo et al., 2014 ) and learning from video (Zhang et al., 2006 ; Ibrahim et al., 2012 ).

Weeding, or the elimination of interesting but extraneous information that does not contribute to the learning goal, tin provide further benefits. For instance, music, complex backgrounds, or actress features within an animation require the learner to judge whether he or she should be paying attending to them, which increases extraneous load and tin reduce learning. Importantly, data that increases extraneous load changes as the learner moves from novice toward expert status. That is, information that may be extraneous for a novice learner may actually be helpful for a more expert-like learner, while information that is essential for a novice may serve as an already known distraction for an skilful. Thus, it is important that the instructor consider his or her learners when weeding educational videos, including data that is necessary for their processing but eliminating information that they do non demand to reach the learning goal and that may overload their working memory. Ibrahim et al. (2012) has shown that this treatment can improve retention and transfer of new data from video.

Finally, the utility of video lessons tin can be maximized by matching modality to content. By using both the audio/verbal channel and the visual/pictorial channel to convey new information, and by fitting the item type of information to the most appropriate aqueduct, instructors can heighten the germane cerebral load of a learning feel. For example, showing an blitheness of a process on screen while narrating it uses both channels to elucidate the process, thus giving the learner dual and complementary streams of data to highlight features that should be candy in working retentiveness. In contrast, showing the animation while likewise showing printed text uses only the visual aqueduct and thus overloads this channel and impedes learning (Mayer and Moreno, 2003 ). In another instance, using a "talking caput" video to explain a complex procedure makes productive employ only of the verbal aqueduct (considering watching the speaker does not convey boosted information), whereas a Khan University–style tutorial that provides symbolic sketches to illustrate the verbal explanation uses both channels to requite complementary information. Using both channels to convey appropriate and complementary data has been shown to increase students' memory and power to transfer data (Mayer and Moreno, 2003 ) and to increase student appointment with videos (Guo et al., 2014 ; Thomson et al., 2014 ).

Educatee Engagement

Another lens through which to consider educational video is student engagement. The idea is simple: if students exercise not sentry videos, they cannot learn from them. Lessons on promoting student appointment derive from before research on multimedia educational activity and more recent work on videos used inside MOOCs (massive open up online courses; see Tabular array 1).

The first and most important guideline for maximizing student attention to educational video is to keep it short. Guo and colleagues examined the length of fourth dimension students watched streaming videos within four edX MOOCs, analyzing results from 6.ix meg video-watching sessions (Guo et al., 2014 ). They observed that the median engagement time for videos less than six minutes long was close to 100%–that is, students tended to spotter the whole video (although in that location are significant outliers; come across the paper for more than complete information). As videos lengthened, however, student date dropped, such that the median engagement fourth dimension with 9- to 12-minute videos was ∼50%, and the median engagement fourth dimension with 12- to 40-minute videos was ∼20%. In fact, the maximum median engagement fourth dimension for a video of any length was half-dozen minutes. Making videos longer than 6–9 minutes is therefore likely to be wasted effort. In complementary piece of work, Risko et al. (2012) showed 1-hour videos to students in a lab setting, probing educatee self-reports of heed wandering iv times in each lecture and testing student retentiveness of lecture textile after the lecture. They found that pupil study of mind wandering increased and retention of material decreased across the video lecture (Risko et al., 2012) .

Another method to proceed students engaged is to use a conversational style. Called the personalization principle by Mayer, the use of conversational rather than formal linguistic communication during multimedia instruction has been shown to have a large event on students' learning, perhaps because a conversational style encourages students to develop a sense of social partnership with the narrator that leads to greater appointment and attempt (Mayer, 2008 ). In add-on, some research suggests that it tin can exist important for video narrators to speak relatively chop-chop and with enthusiasm. In their study examining student engagement with MOOC videos, Guo and colleagues observed that student engagement was dependent on the narrator'due south speaking rate, with student engagement increasing every bit speaking charge per unit increased (Guo et al., 2014 ). It can exist tempting for video narrators to speak slowly to help ensure that students grasp important ideas, but including in-video questions, "chapters," and speed control can give students control over this characteristic—and increasing narrator speed appears to promote educatee interest.

Instructors can likewise promote student date with educational videos by creating or packaging them in a style that conveys that the material is for these students in this grade. One of the benefits for instructors in using educational videos can exist the ability to reuse them for other classes and other semesters. When creating or choosing videos, however, it is important to consider whether they were created for the type of environs in which they volition exist used. For example, a contiguous classroom session that is videotaped and presented within an online form may feel less engaging than a video that is created with an online environment as the initial target (Guo et al., 2014 ). A video's adaptability can exist enhanced, however: when reusing videos, instructors can package them for a particular class using text outside the video to contextualize the relevance for that particular class and lesson.

Agile LEARNING

As biology educators, we have abundant testify that active learning in the classroom provides clear advantages over passive encounters with course material through lecture (due east.g., Knight and Woods, 2005 ; Haak et al., 2011 ; Freeman et al., 2014 ). Similarly, elements that promote cognitive activity during video viewing can enhance student learning from this medium (encounter Table i).

Schacter and Szpunar (2015) advise a conceptual framework for enhancing learning from educational videos that identifies online learning as a type of self-regulated learning. Self-regulation of learning requires students to monitor their own learning, to identify learning difficulties, and to respond to these judgments; in other words, it requires students to actively build and interrogate mental models, practicing metacognition virtually the learning process. Novices within a field, nonetheless, have difficulty accurately judging their understanding, often overestimating their learning (Bjork et al., 2013 ). This problem may exist enhanced when new information is delivered via video, which students written report every bit easier to learn and more memorable than text (Salomon, 1994 ; Choi and Johnson, 2005 ). Incorporating prompts for students to engage in the type of cerebral action necessary to process information—to appoint in active learning—tin can help them build and test mental models, explicitly converting video watching from a passive to an active-learning issue. The means to do this tin can vary, simply the following strategies have demonstrated success in some contexts.

Parcel Video with Interactive Questions

Szpunar et al. compared the examination functioning of students who answered questions interpolated between ∼5 min video lectures and students who did unrelated arithmetic problems between the videos, finding that the students in the interpolated question group performed significantly better on subsequent tests of the material and reported less listen wandering (Szpunar et al., 2013 ). Students who received the interpolated questions also exhibited increased annotation taking, reported the learning effect as less "mentally taxing," and reported less anxiety most the final test. These results suggest that interpolated questions may improve student learning from video through several mechanisms. Commencement, they may help to optimize cerebral load by decreasing inapplicable load (i.e., anxiety well-nigh an upcoming test) and increasing germane load (i.due east., note taking, reduced mind wandering). Further, interpolated questions may produce some of their do good by tapping into the "testing effect," in which recall of of import data strengthens students' memory of and ability to use the recalled information (Roediger and Karpicke, 2006 ; Brame and Biel, 2015 ). Finally, interpolated questions may assist students engage in more accurate self-assessment (Szpunar et al., 2014 ), an important benefit for a medium that students may perceive every bit "easier" than text. Tools like HapYak and Zaption can also allow instructors to embed questions directly into video and to give specific feedback based on student response. This approach has similar benefits to interpolated questions in increasing student operation on subsequent assessments (Vural, 2013 ) and has the boosted benefit of making the video interactive (see following section).

Use Interactive Features That Requite Students Command

Zhang and colleagues compared the affect of interactive and noninteractive video on students' learning in a computer scientific discipline form (Zhang et al., 2006 ). Students who were able to control movement through the video, selecting important sections to review and moving backward when desired, demonstrated better achievement of learning outcomes and greater satisfaction. Ane unproblematic way to accomplish this level of interactivity is by using YouTube Annotate, HapYak, or another tool to introduce labeled "chapters" into a video. This not only has the do good of giving students control just likewise tin demonstrate the organization, increasing the germane load of the lesson.

Make Video Office of a Larger Homework Assignment

MacHardy and Pardos (2015) take adult a model relating educational video characteristics to students' performance on subsequent assessments. I ascertainment from their assay of Khan Academy videos was that videos that offered the greatest benefits to students were highly relevant to associated exercises. This consequence is supported by results observed in a "instruction-as-research" project at Vanderbilt University (for groundwork on teaching every bit research, run across world wide web.cirtl.net). Specifically, Faizan Zubair participated in the Bold Fellows programme, in which graduate students develop online learning materials for incorporation into a faculty mentor's course and so investigate their impact in teaching-equally-research projects. Zubair developed videos on that were embedded in a larger homework assignment in Paul Laibinis's chemical engineering course and institute that students valued the videos and that the videos improved students' understanding of hard concepts when compared with a semester when the videos were not used in conjunction with the homework (Zubair and Laibinis, 2015 ; see also Summary).

The of import thing to keep in mind is that watching a video can be a passive experience, much as reading tin can be. To make the most of our educational videos, we need to assistance students do the processing and self-evaluation that will lead to the learning we want to see.

SUMMARY

Video may provide a significant means to amend student learning and enhance student engagement in biology courses (Allen and Smith, 2012 ; Kay, 2012 ; Lloyd and Robertson, 2012 ; Rackaway, 2012 ; Hsin and Cigas, 2013 ; Stockwell et al., 2015 ). To maximize the benefit from educational videos, withal, it is important to keep in mind the iii cardinal components of cognitive load, elements that affect engagement, and elements that promote active learning. Luckily, consideration of these elements converges on a few recommendations:

• Keep videos brief and targeted on learning goals.

• Apply audio and visual elements to convey appropriate parts of an explanation; consider how to brand these elements complementary rather than redundant.

• Use signaling to highlight of import ideas or concepts.

• Use a conversational, enthusiastic mode to enhance engagement.

• Embed videos in a context of active learning by using guiding questions, interactive elements, or associated homework assignments.

Acknowledgments

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